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1.  
High Performance Planar Antimony-Based Superlattice Photodetectors Using Zinc Diffusion Grown by MBE
High Performance Planar Antimony-Based Superlattice Photodetectors Using Zinc Diffusion Grown by MBE
Jiakai Li, R. K. Saroj, Steven Slivken, V. H. Nguyen, Gail Brown and Manijeh Razeghi
Photonics 2022, 9, 664
In this letter, we report a mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) planar photodetector based on InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattices (T2SLs) that has a cut-off wavelength of 4.3 um at 77 K. The superlattice for the device was grown by molecular beam epitaxy while the planar device structure was achieved by Zinc diffusion process in a metal–organic chemical vapor deposition reactor. At 77 K, the peak responsivity and the corresponding quantum efficiency had the value of 1.42 A/W and 48% respectively at 3.7 um under -20 mV for the MWIR planar photodetector. At 77 K, the MWIR planar photodetector exhibits a dark current density of 2.0E5 A/cm^2 and the R0A value of ~3.0E2 Ohm cm^2 under -20 mV, which yielded a specific detectivity of 4.0E11 cm Hz^(1/2)/W at 3.7 um. At 150 K, the planar device showed a dark current density of 6.4E-5 A/cm^2 and a quantum efficiency of 49% at ~3.7 um under -20 mV, which yielded a specific detectivity of 2.0E11 cm Hz^(1/2)/W. reprint
 
2.  
Demonstration of Zn-Diffused Planar Long-Wavelength Infrared Photodetector Based on Type-II Superlattice Grown by MBE
Demonstration of Zn-Diffused Planar Long-Wavelength Infrared Photodetector Based on Type-II Superlattice Grown by MBE
Rajendra K. Saroj, Van Hoang Nguyen, Steven Slivken, Gail J. Brown and Manijeh Razeghi
IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics
We report on a planar long-wavelength infrared photodetector based on InAs/InAs1−xSbx type-II superlattice with zinc diffusion. The superlattice structures were grown by molecular beam epitaxy, followed by a post-growth Zinc diffusion process in a metal-organic chemical vapor deposition reactor. The planar photodetectors showed a peak responsivity of 2.18 A/W, under an applied bias of −20 mV, with a corresponding quantum efficiency of 44.5%, without any anti-reflection coating, and had a 100% cut-off wavelength of 8.5 μm at 77 K temperature. These photodetectors exhibit a specific peak detectivity of 3.0×10^12 cm.Hz^1/2/W, with a dark current density of 1.5 × 10−5 A/cm2 and the differential-resistance-area product of ∼8.6 × 10−1 Ω.cm2, under an applied bias of −20 mV at 77 K. A comparative study between the planar and conventional mesa isolated photodetectors was also carried out. reprint
 
3.  
Low Dark Current Deep UV AlGaN Photodetectors on AlN Substrate
Low Dark Current Deep UV AlGaN Photodetectors on AlN Substrate
Lakshay Gautam, Junhee Lee, Gail Brown, Manijeh Razeghi
IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 1-5, June 2022, Art no. 4000205
We report high quality, low dark current, deep Ultraviolet AlGaN/AlN Photodetectors on AlN substrate. AlGaN based Photodetectors are grown and fabricated both on AlN and Sapphire substrates with the same epilayer structure. Subsequently, electrical characteristics of both photodetectors on AlN substrate and Sapphire are compared. A reduction of 4 orders of magnitude of dark current density is reported in UV detectors grown on AlN substrate with respect to Sapphire substrate. reprint
 
4.  
Mid‑wavelength infrared avalanche  photodetector with AlAsSb/GaSb  superlattice
Mid‑wavelength infrared avalanche photodetector with AlAsSb/GaSb superlattice
Jiakai Li, Arash Dehzangi, Gail Brown, Manijeh Razeghi
Scientifc Reports | (2021) 11:7104 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-86566-8
In this work, a mid-wavelength infrared separate absorption and multiplication avalanche photodiode (SAM-APD) with 100% cut-of wavelength of ~ 5.0 µm at 200 K grown by molecular beam epitaxy was demonstrated. The InAsSb-based SAM-APD device was designed to have electron dominated avalanche mechanism via the band structure engineered multi-quantum well structure based on AlAsSb/GaSb H-structure superlattice and InAsSb material in the multiplication region. The device exhibits a maximum multiplication gain of 29 at 200 K under -14.7 bias voltage. The maximum multiplication gain value for the MWIR SAM-APD increases from 29 at 200 K to 121 at 150 K. The electron and hole impact ionization coefficients were derived and the large difference between their value was observed. The carrier ionization ratio for the MWIR SAM-APD device was calculated to be ~ 0.097 at 200 K. reprint
 
5.  
Geiger-Mode Operation of AlGaN Avalanche Photodiodes at 255 nm
Geiger-Mode Operation of AlGaN Avalanche Photodiodes at 255 nm
Lakshay Gautam, Alexandre Guillaume Jaud, Junhee Lee, Gail J. Brown, Manijeh Razeghi
Published in: IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics ( Volume: 57, Issue: 2, April 2021)
We report the Geiger mode operation of back-illuminated AlGaN avalanche photodiodes. The devices were fabricated on transparent AlN templates specifically for back-illumination to leverage hole-initiated multiplication. The spectral response was analyzed with a peak detection wavelength of 255 nm with an external quantum efficiency of ~14% at zero bias. Low-photon detection capabilities were demonstrated in devices with areas 25 μm×25 μm. Single photon detection efficiencies of ~5% were achieved. reprint
 
6.  
Type-II ‘M’ Structure Photodiodes:  An Alternative Material Design for Mid-Wave to Long Wavelength Infrared Regimes
Type-II ‘M’ Structure Photodiodes: An Alternative Material Design for Mid-Wave to Long Wavelength Infrared Regimes
B-M. Nguyen, M. Razeghi, V. Nathan, and G.J. Brown
SPIE Conference, January 25-29, 2007, San Jose, CA Proceedings – Quantum Sensing and Nanophotonic Devices IV, Vol. 6479, p. 64790S-1-10-- January 29, 2007
In this work, an AlSb-containing Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice, the so-called M-structure, is presented as a candidate for mid and long wavelength infrared detection devices. The effect of inserting an AlSb barrier in the GaSb layer is discussed and predicts many promising properties relevant to practical use. A good agreement between the theoretical calculation based on Empirical Tight Binding Method framework and experimental results is observed, showing the feasibility of the structure and its properties. A band gap engineering method without material stress constraint is proposed. reprint
 
7.  On the performance and surface passivation of type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice photodiodes for the very-long- wavelength infrared
A. Hood, M. Razeghi, E. Aifer, G.J. Brown
Applied Physics Letters 87 (1)-- October 10, 2005
We demonstrate very-long-wavelength infrared Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice photodiodes with a cutoff wavelength (λc,50%) of 17 μm. We observed a zero-bias, peak Johnson noise-limited detectivity of 7.63×109 cm·Hz½/W at 77 K with a 90%-10% cutoff width of 17 meV, and quantum efficiency of 30%. Variable area diode zero-bias resistance-area product (R0A) measurements indicated that silicon dioxide passivation increased surface resistivity by nearly a factor of 5, over unpassivated photodiodes, and increased overall R0A uniformity. The bulk R0A at 77 K was found to be 0.08 Ω·cm2, with RA increasing more than twofold at 25 mV reverse bias. reprint
 
8.  Infrared detection from GaInAs/InP nanopillar arrays
A. Gin, B. Movaghar, M. Razeghi and G.J. Brown
Nanotechnology 16-- July 1, 2005
We report on the photoresponse from large arrays of 40 nm radius nanopillars with sensitivity in the long-wavelength infrared regime. Using photoluminescence techniques, a peak wavelength blue shift of approximately 5 meV was observed at 30 K from GaInAs/InP nanopillar structures, indicating carrier confinement effects. Responsivity measurements at 30 K indicated peak wavelength response at about 8 µm with responsivity of 420 mA/W at −2 V bias. We have also measured the noise and estimated the peak detectivity to be 3×108 cm·Hz½·W−1 at 1 V reverse bias and 30 K. A maximum internal quantum efficiency of 4.5% was derived from experiment. Both the photo and the dark transport have been successfully modeled as processes that involve direct and indirect field-assisted tunneling as well as thermionic emission. The best agreement with experiment was obtained when allowances were made for the non-uniformity of barrier widths and electric field heating of carriers above the lattice temperature. reprint
 
9.  GaInAs/InP nanopillar arrays for long wavelength infrared detection
A. Gin, Y. Wei, A. Hood, D. Hoffman, M. Razeghi and G.J. Brown
SPIE Conference, Jose, CA, Vol. 5732, pp. 350-- January 22, 2005
Nanopillar devices have been fabricated from GaInAs/InP QWIP material grown by MOCVD. Using electron beam lithography and reactive ion etching techniques, large, regular arrays of nanopillars with controllable diameters ranging from 150 nm to less than 40 nm have been reproducibly formed. Photoluminescence experiments demonstrate a strong peak wavelength blue shift for nanopillar structures compared to the as-grown quantum well material. Top and bottom metal contacts have been realized using a polyimide planarization and etchback procedure. I-V and noise measurements have been performed. Optical measurements indicate photoconductive response in selected nanopillar arrays. Device peak wavelength response occurs at about 8 µm with peak device responsivity of 420 mA/W. Peak detectivity of 3×108 cm·Hz½/W has been achieved at -1V bias and 30 K. reprint
 
10.  Advanced Monolithic Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector Focal Plane Array Integrated with Silicon Readout Integrated Circuit
J. Jiang, S. Tsao, K. Mi, M. Razeghi, G.J. Brown, C. Jelen and M.Z. Tidrow
Infrared Physics and Technology, 46 (3)-- January 1, 2005
Today, most infrared focal plane arrays (FPAs) utilize a hybrid scheme. To achieve higher device reliability and lower cost, monolithic FPAs with Si based readout integrated circuits (ROICs) are the trend of the future development. In this paper, two approaches for monolithic FPAs are proposed: double sided integration and selective epitaxy integration. For comparison, the fabrication process for hybrid quantum well infrared photodetectors (QWIP) FPAs are also described. Many problems, such as the growth of QWIPs on Si substrate and processing incompatibility between Si and III–V semiconductors, need to be solved before monolithic FPAs can be realized. Experimental work on GaInAs/InP QWIP-on-Si is given in this paper. A record high detectivity of 2.3×109 jones was obtained for one QWIP-on-Si detector at 77 K. reprint
 
11.  Demonstration of a 256x256 Middle-Wavelength Infrared Focal Plane Array based on InGaAs/InGaP Quantum Dot Infrared Photodetectors (QDIPs)
J. Jiang, K. Mi, S. Tsao, W. Zhang, H. Lim, T.O'Sullivan, T. Sills, M. Razeghi, G.J. Brown, and M.Z. Tidrow
Applied Physics Letters, 84 (13)-- April 29, 2004
We report a demonstration of an infrared focal plane array based on InGaAs/InGaP quantum dot infrared photodetectors. The middle-wavelength infrared quantum-dot infrared photodetector (QDIP) structure was grown via low-pressure metal organic chemical vapor deposition. A detectivity of 3.6×1010 cm·Hz½/W was achieved at T = 95 K and a bias of –1.4 V. The background limited temperature of our QDIP was 140 K with a 45° field of view. A 256×256 detector array was fabricated with dry etching, and hybridized to a Litton readout chip by indium bumps. Thermal imaging was achieved at temperatures up to 120 K. At T = 77 K, the noise equivalent temperature difference was measured as 0.509 K with a 300 K background and f/2.3 optics. reprint
 
12.  High Detectivity InGaAs/InGaP Quantum-Dot Infrared Photodetectors Grown by Low Pressure Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition
J. Jiang, S. Tsao, T. O'Sullivan, W. Zhang, H. Lim, T. Sills, K. Mi, M. Razeghi, G.J. Brown, and M.Z. Tidrow
Applied Physics Letters, 84 (12)-- April 22, 2004
We report a high detectivity middle-wavelength infrared quantum dot infrared photodetector (QDIP). The InGaAs quantum dots were grown by self-assembly on an InGaP matrix via low pressure metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. Photoresponse was observed at temperatures above 200 K with a peak wavelength of 4.7 µm and cutoff wavelength of 5.2 µm. The background limited performance temperature was 140 K, and this was attributed to the super low dark current observed in this QDIP. A detectivity of 3.6×1010 cm·Hz½/W, which is comparable to the state-of-the-art quantum well infrared photodetectors in a similar wavelength range, was obtained for this InGaAs/InGaP QDIP at both T = 77 K and T = 95 K at biases of –1.6 and –1.4 V, reprint
 
13.  Demonstration of a 256x256 Middle-Wavelength Infrared Focal Plane Array based on InGaAs/InGaP Quantum Dot Infrared Photodetectors (QDIPs)
J. Jiang, K. Mi, S. Tsao, W. Zhang, H. Lim, T.O'Sullivan, T. Sills, M. Razeghi, G.J. Brown, and M.Z. Tidrow
Virtual Journal of Nanoscale Science and Technology 9 (13)-- April 5, 2004reprint
 
14.  High Detectivity InGaAs/InGaP Quantum-Dot Infrared Photodetectors Grown by Low Pressure Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition
J. Jiang, S. Tsao, T. O'Sullivan, W. Zhang, H. Lim, T. Sills, K. Mi, M. Razeghi, G.J. Brown, and M.Z. Tidrow
Virtual Journal of Nanoscale Science and Technology 9 (12)-- March 29, 2004reprint
 
15.  Fabrication of Indium Bumps for Hybrid Infrared Focal Plane Array Applications
J. Jiang, S. Tsao, T. O'Sullivan, M. Razeghi, and G.J. Brown
Infrared Physics and Technology, 45 (2)-- March 1, 2004
Hybrid infrared focal plane arrays (FPAs) have found many applications. In hybrid IR FPAs, FPA and Si read out integrated circuits (ROICs) are bonded together with indium bumps by flip-chip bonding. Taller and higher uniformity indium bumps are always being pursued in FPA fabrication. In this paper, two indium bump fabrication processes based on evaporation and electroplating techniques are developed. Issues related to each fabrication technique are addressed in detail. The evaporation technique is based on a unique positive lithography process. The electroplating method achieves taller indium bumps with a high aspect ratio by a unique “multi-stack” technique. This technique could potentially benefit the fabrication of multi-color FPAs. Finally, a proposed low-cost indium bump fabrication technique, the “bump transfer”, is given as a future technology for hybrid IR FPA fabrication. reprint
 
16.  Modeling Type-II InAs/GaSb Superlattices Using Empirical Tight-Binding Method: New Aspects
Y. Wei, M. Razeghi, G.J. Brown, and M.Z. Tidrow
SPIE Conference, Jose, CA, Vol. 5359, pp. 301-- January 25, 2004
The recent advances in the experimental work on the Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattices necessitate a modeling that can handle arbitrary layer thickness as well as different types of interfaces in order to guide the superlattice design. The empirical tight-binding method (ETBM) is a very good candidate since it builds up the Hamiltonian atom by atom. There has been a lot of research work on the modeling of Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattices using the ETBM. However, different groups generate very different accuracy comparing with experimental results. We have recently identified two major aspects in the modeling: the antimony segregation and the interface effects. These two aspects turned out to be of crucial importance governing the superlattice properties, especially the bandgap. We build the superlattice Hamiltonian using antimony segregated atomic profile taking into account the interface. Our calculations agree with our experimental results within growth uncertainties. In addition we introduced the concept of GaxIn1-x type interface engineering, which will add another design freedom especially in the mid-wavelength infrared range (3~7 µm) in orderto reduce the lattice mismatch. reprint
 
17.  High Quality Type-II InAs/GaSb Superlattices with Cutoff Wavelength ~3.7 µm Using Interface Engineering
Y. Wei, J. Bae, A. Gin, A. Hood, M. Razeghi, G.J. Brown, and M. Tidrow
Journal of Applied Physics, 94 (7)-- October 1, 2003
We report the most recent advance in the area of Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattices that have cutoff wavelength of ~3.7 µm. With GaxIn1–x type interface engineering techniques, the mismatch between the superlattices and the GaSb (001) substrate has been reduced to <0.1%. There is no evidence of dislocations using the best examination tools of x-ray, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The full width half maximum of the photoluminescence peak at 11 K was ~4.5 meV using an Ar+ ion laser (514 nm) at fluent power of 140 mW. The integrated photoluminescence intensity was linearly dependent on the fluent laser power from 2.2 to 140 mW at 11 K. The temperature-dependent photoluminescence measurement revealed a characteristic temperature of one T1 = 245 K at sample temperatures below 160 K with fluent power of 70 mW, and T1 = 203 K for sample temperatures above 180 K with fluent power of 70 and 420 mW. reprint
 
18.  Demonstration of 256x256 Focal Plane Arrays Based on Al-free GaInAs/InP QWIP
J. Jiang, K. Mi, R. McClintock, M. Razeghi, G.J. Brown, and C. Jelen
IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 15 (9)-- September 1, 2003
We report the first demonstration of an infrared focal plane array based on aluminum-free GaInAs-InP quantum-well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs).A unique positive lithography method was developed to perform indium-bump liftoff. The noise equivalent differential temperature (NEΔT) of 29 mK was achieved at 70 K with f/2 optics. reprint
 
19.  Recent Advances in InAs/GaSb Superlattices for Very Long Wavelength Infrared Detection
G.J. Brown, F. Szmulowicz, K. Mahalingam, S. Houston, Y. Wei, A. Gin and M. Razeghi
SPIE Conference, San Jose, CA, Vol. 4999, pp. 457-- January 27, 2003
New infrared (IR) detector materials with high sensitivity, multi-spectral capability, improved uniformity and lower manufacturing costs are required for numerous long and very long wavelength infrared imaging applications. One materials system has shown great theoretical and, more recently, experimental promise for these applications: InAs/InxGa1-xSb type-II superlattices. In the past few years, excellent results have been obtained on photoconductive and photodiode samples designed for infrared detection beyond 15 microns. The infrared properties of various compositions and designs of these type-II superlattices have been studied. The infrared photoresponse spectra are combined with quantum mechanical modeling of predicted absorption spectra to provide insight into the underlying physics behind the quantum sensing in these materials. Results for superlattice photodiodes with cut-off wavelengths as long as 25 microns are presented. reprint
 
20.  Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice photovoltaic detectors with cutoff wavelength approaching 32 μm
Y. Wei, A. Gin, M. Razeghi and G.J. Brown
Applied Physics Letters, 81 (19)-- November 4, 2002
We report the most recent advance in the area of type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice photovoltaic detectors that have cutoff wavelengths beyond 25 μm, with some at nearly 32 μm. The photodiodes with a heterosuperlattice junction showed Johnson noise limited peak detectivity of 1.05 x 1010 cm Hz½/W at 15 μm under zero bias, and peak responsivity of 3 A/W under -40 mV reverse bias at 34 K illuminated by ~300 K background with a 2π field-of-view. The maximum operating temperature of these detectors ranges from 50 to 65 K. No detectable change in the blackbody response has been observed after 5-6 thermal cyclings, with temperature varying between 15 and 296 K in vacuum. reprint
 
21.  Advanced InAs/GaSb Superlattice Photovoltaic Detectors for Very-Long Wavelength Infrared Applications
Y. Wei, A. Gin, M. Razeghi, and G.J. Brown
Applied Physics Letters 80 (18)-- May 6, 2002
We report on the temperature dependence of the photoresponse of very long wavelength infrared type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice based photovoltaic detectors grown by molecular-beam epitaxy. The detectors had a 50% cutoff wavelength of 18.8 μm and a peak current responsivity of 4 A·W-1 at 80 K. A peak detectivity of 4.5×1010 cm· Hz½·W-1 was achieved at 80 K at a reverse bias of 110 mV. The generation–recombination lifetime was 0.4 ns at 80 K. The cutoff wavelength increased very slowly with increasing temperature with a net shift from 20 to 80 K of only 1.2 μm reprint
 
22.  High Detectivity GaInAs/InP Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors Grown on Si Substrates
J. Jiang, C. Jelen, M. Razeghi and G.J. Brown
IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 14 (3)-- March 1, 2002
In this letter, we report an improvement in the growth and the device performance of GaInAs-InP quantum well infrared photodetectors grown on Si substrates. Material growth techniques, like low-temperature nucleation layers and thick buffer layers were used to grow InP on Si. An in situ thermal cycle annealing technique was used to reduce the threading dislocation density in the InP-on-Si. Detector dark current was reduced 2 orders of magnitude by this method. Record high detectivity of 2.3 × 109 cm·Hz½·W-1 was obtained for QWIP-on-Si detectors in the 7-9 μm range at 77 K reprint
 
23.  Type-II InAs/GaSb Superlattices and Detectors with Cutoff Wavelength Greater Than 18 μm
M. Razeghi, Y. Wei, A. Gin, G.J. Brown and D. Johnstone
Proceedings of the SPIE, San Jose, CA, Vol. 4650, 111 (2002)-- January 25, 2002
The authors report the most recent advances in Type-II InAs/GaSb superlattice materials and photovoltaic detectors. Lattice mismatch between the substrate and the superlattice has been routinely achieved below 0.1%, and less than 0.0043% as the record. The FWHM of the zeroth order peak from x-ray diffraction has been decreased below 50 arcsec and a record of less than 44arcsec has been achieved. High performance detectors with 50% cutoff beyond 18 micrometers up to 26 micrometers have been successfully demonstrated. The detectors with a 50% cut-off wavelength of 18.8 micrometers showed a peak current responsivity of 4 A/W at 80K, and a peak detectivity of 4.510 cm·Hz½·W-1 was achieved at 80K at a reverse bias of 110 mV under 300 K 2(pi) FOV background. Some detectors showed a projected 0% cutoff wavelength up to 28~30 micrometers . The peak responsivity of 3Amp/Watt and detectivity of 4.2510 cm·Hz½·W-1 was achieved under -40mV reverse bias at 34K for these detectors. reprint
 
24.  Type-II Binary Superlattices for Infrared Detector
M. Razeghi, H. Mohseni and G.J. Brown
Journal of the Korean Physical Society 39-- December 1, 2001
III-V quantum wells and superlattices based on InAs/GaSb/AlSb, and related compounds have attracted many attentions due to their unique band alignments and physical properties. Recently, novel electronic and optoelectronic heterostructures have been proposed from this material system for hundred gigahertz logic circuits, terahertz transistors, RTDs, infrared lasers, and infrared detectors. In this paper we will describe the ongoing research at the Center for Quantum Devices to develop the theory, modeling, growth, characterization, and device fabrication techniques for this material system. We have demonstrated the rst uncooled infrared detectors from type-II superlattices. The measured detectivity is more than 1 x 108 cm·Hz½/W at 10.6 μm at room temperature which is higher than the commercially available uncooled photon detectors at similar wavelength. In parallel, we have demonstrated the rst high-performance p-i-n type-II photodiode in the very long wavelength infrared (VLWIR) range operating at T = 80 K. The devices with cuto wavelength of 16 μm showed a responsivity of 3.5 A/W at 80 K leading to a detectivity of 1.51 x 1010 cm·Hz½/W. Similar devices with cutoff wavelengths up to 25 μm was demonstrated at 80 K. To enhance this technology further, we plan to move from quantum wells to quantum wire and quantum dots.
 
25.  Quantum Dots of InAs/GaSb Type-II Superlattice for Infrared Sensing
M. Razeghi, Y. Wei, A. Gin and G.J. Brown
Materials Research Society Fall Meeting, Boston, MA; MRS Symposium Proceedings, Vol. 692 (H3.1)-- November 26, 2001
Throughout the past years, significant progress has been made in Type-II (InAs/GaSb) photovoltaic detectors in both LWIR and VLWIR ranges. BLIP performance at 60K for 16 μm photovoltaic Type-II detectors has been successfully demonstrated for the first time. The detectors had a 50% cut-off wavelength of 18.8 μm and a peak current responsivity of 4 A/W at 80K. A peak detectivity of 4.5×1010cm·Hz1/2/W was achieved at 80K at a reverse bias of 110mV. Detectors of cutoff wavelength up to 25μm have been demonstrated at 77K. The great performance of single element detectors appeals us to lower dimensional structures for both higher temperature performance and possible wavelength tunability. Simple calculations show that quantum effects will become significant when the lateral confinement is within tens of nanometers. The variation of applied gate voltage will move the electron and hole energy levels unevenly. The cutoff wavelength of the superlattice will vary accordingly. Auger recombination will also decrease and higher temperature operation becomes possible. In this talk, the latest results will be discussed.
 

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